Risk Tolerance & need to diversify Research Paper

Risk Tolerance & need to diversify - Research Paper Example Large Company stocks, also referred to as blue-chip stocks or large-cap stocks, refer to the stocks of large publicly traded companies (Leach and Melicher, 2011, p.249). Long term corporate bonds in most cases refer to debentures which offer a higher yield compared to other investments but investors of such bonds are prone to interest risk and credit risk. Long term government bond refers to those bonds which mature in more than 10years. US Treasury bill is a transferable debt contract issued by the US Government that ensures trust and fulfillment of claim of receivable return at the end of the period. Such investment is made for a period of one year or less than one year, and is exempt from local and state taxes (Boston Institute of Finance, 2005, p.105). If my decision is to invest in the current portfolio of mix of stock, bonds and treasury bills in equal proportions, despite of the divisions between fixed earnings and volatility of earnings of the securities, the entire portfolio would give an average (avg.) expected return of 14.78%, with risk of 8.88% associated with it, as per time horizon and risk tolerance. Impact on future Investment Decisions The decision of future investment and formation of portfolio with diversification depends on the characteristics of the investor, the characteristics of the securities in the portfolio and its risk return trade-off which will determine the proportion of investment to be made in each security, observation of the historical performance of the securities, and the time horizon of investment. An investor can be broadly classified into risk averse investors, risk prone investor, and risk neutral investor, based on their degree of risk preference. Risk averse investors prefer security to earnings than risk accompanied by high returns. Such investors prefer to invest more in bonds and treasury bills which will carry a guarantee of return at the end of period with low risk; as such investors try to avoid risks. Some inve stors who prefer to bear risk and avail the high return associated with it belong to a class of risk prone investors. Such investors prefer to invest in risky securities with high returns, such as equity, so as to avail the benefit arising out of it. There is another class of investors known as risk neutral investors, as they do not make any differentiation between debt and equity and opt to invest equal proportion in each (Haslem, 2009, p.158). If I am a risk averse investor, I shall prefer maximum investment in treasury bills and bonds, as this will assure a fixed percentage of returns at the end of the period with low risk associated with it. Thus, 80% of the investment is to be made in treasury bills and bonds, and 20% in company stocks. The proportion of investment in long-term corporate bonds differs from long term government bonds and US Treasury bills, as because long term corporate bonds is a bit risky than the others. If I am a risk neutral investor, I shall prefer equal p roportion of investment in both stocks and bonds (i.e. bonds and treasury bills), with an expectation that if return from stock is higher I shall benefit from my investment, and, if investment in stock fails to provide return, then benefit earned from the fixed income bearing securities would help to offset some portion of the loss. If I am a risk prone invest

Police Recruitment and Screening of Job Applicants Essay

Police Recruitment and Screening of Job Applicants - Essay Example As touching citizenship, the candidate can be considered legible by birth, naturalization, permanent residency or asylum status. The case law Foley v. Connelie (1977) shows that rational reason for requirement of citizenship may suffice. The age of the applicant is expected to range from 21 to 36. The candidate is also required to have 20/20 vision and have body weight that falls between 148 and 204 pounds. As touching education, the department or field the candidate has applied for will stipulate the educational standards expected of the candidate (Sanders, 129-30). It is obvious that the Multiple Hurdle Approach brings with it, several legal issues. At a casual glance, the Multiple Hurdle Approach appears to flout the values enshrined in the Equal Employment Opportunity Act (EEOA, also known as Executive Order 11246): the latter hinders specific federal subcontractors and contractors from exercising discrimination in employment on the basis of color, race, sex, religion or nationality, while the former premises legibility for jobs on meeting specific hurdles. However, the Multiple Hurdle Approach does not breach the EEO Act if it is used in enforcing desired standards and not discriminating against candidates. One of the ways the Multiple Hurdle Approach is carried out without the contravention of the EEO Act is to use and observe the minimum standards that are related to the job requirements. The import of this is that failing to use the minimum standards will be tantamount to subjecting candidates for tests that are more difficult or complex than the job itself (Sanders, 144-7). As the chief of a department with limited resources allowing for the use of only one recruitment test to select officers, I would use aptitude test. This is because, aptitude test factors intelligence and cognitive skills. Since aptitude test is

Use of Technology in Forensic Accounting Investigation Essay

Use of Technology in Forensic Accounting Investigation - Essay Example Use of Technology in Forensic Accounting Investigation A forensic investigation is normally undertaken so as to solve both criminal and civil cases in a court of law. The cases that are solved involve fraud, tracing of stolen assets and money that has been laundered. The objects collected during an investigation act as forms of evidence as to what really transpired before and after the incident happens. Forensic accountants gather evidence that is used in carrying out investigations of financial crimes that may take time and effort to compile and complete in the appropriate way. They are expected to follow rules that should be applied in the local courts as per the stipulated policies and principles that govern the exercise. An accident refers to an event or a sequence that occurs as a result of careless driving and unintentional circustamances while crime is an event that violates a policy. The proof that the accident occurred is shown by provision of evidence of event. The role played by technology in carrying forensic investigation involves improving the criminal investigation process so as to ease the work of the police of tracking all types of persons who may be violating the law. The businessmen as well as the police benefit from using information technology because enables them carry out their businesses in the right way and also trap criminals who are a threat to their lives and businesses. (Kanellis, 2006:20). The criminal records and suspect information are normally computerized therefore any investigator in any part of a country can access information that is relevant to conduct an investigation concerning any suspected criminal. Computer files are searched according to the investigators desires since relevant information can be found within the computerized system. Computer models are important information technology facilities that assist a designer in testing designs through using many conditional systems that have been stipulated within an act. Artificial intelligence is a program that is used by the police in obtaining pictures, age and determining predictions so as to point out areas where there may be crime. Cyberspace enables the police to track and trap criminals who frequently steal individual's property while at their residential areas. This technology is also used in trapping vehicles that have been carjacked since the computer has mechanism that shows the routes taken by a driver during and after the vehicle has been stolen, hence the vehicles can be traced with ease. Technology products and their usefulness in carrying out forensic investigation The use of technological appliances such as the DNA_on-a-chip helps the forensic practitioners to move fast to the scene of incident so as to carry out an investigation on the cause and effect of the criminal activity. The importance of using this type of facility is that it helps to create awareness concerning the strategic factors that are necessary when carrying out an investigation in the police force. It also helps in enlightening the forensic science providers, government and the higher education personnel thus giving them the necessary insight to fight crime (Kanellis, 2006:20). Digital forensics is a facility that is used in assisting people in carrying out investigation processes that are based on following the physical crime scene procedures. Investigations are carried out through preserving a system and searching for the digital events that took place at the scene of an incident or accident. The

Similar to Sister James Essay Example for Free

Similar to Sister James Essay Similar to Sister James I was left in doubt throughout the story regarding what was true and what was not. One aspect of the story that did not leave me in doubt was the juxtaposition of the very different philosophies of Sister Aloysius and Father Flynn. One the far end of rigid sternness was Sister Aloysius with her dislike of anything new or changing and who felt the children should be dealt with stern rigid methods. On the complete opposite side was Father Flynn who felt the children should be related to with kindness and love and favored progression to transform the school. Even within the structured religious institution there was the classic dichotomy between black and white, light and dark, good and bad; although there is doubt about which character reflects which aspect, for most of the story I felt Sister Aloysius represented the black and Father Flynn the white. Through their conversations and actions the two waged a war of words and wills which left Sister James caught in the crossfire wherein she subsequently lost her innocence and was possibly the biggest victim of all. Although she was perceived as ignorant by Sister Aloysius I feel Sister James simply had a new and progressive attitude towards the education of her students. Sister Aloysius quickly cut through her ideals on how she should teach and be regarded by students in favor of her own stern methods and approach while subsequently igniting the flame of doubt within Sister James. It is the doubt that quickly corrupts Sister James changing how she views herself and the world around her. She goes from perceiving the world from an optimistic and happy place to that of pessimistic and paranoid which she says makes her â€Å"feel as if I’m less close to God†. It struck me as highly unbecoming of anyone ordained as a nun to cause another sister to stray away from God and Sister Aloysius’s excuse of â€Å"In the pursuit of wrongdoing, one steps away from God† was weak at best. She seems to have had it out for Father Flynn from the beginning and done everything she could to get rid of him and even though she did the problem (if there was one) simply moved locations. Her actions can be easily justifiable only if her suspicions were correct and as the truth is never revealed the reader is left in doubt. I feel there is a lot of meaning in the title and that the story would hold a different meaning if it were simply titled â€Å"Doubt†. Adding the words â€Å"A Parable† change my perceptions and connotations about the underlying themes and messages of the work. Regarding parables while talking with Sister James Father Flynn says â€Å"You make up little stories to illustrate. In the tradition of the parable†, and later â€Å"What actually happens in life is beyond interpretation. The truth makes for a bad sermon. It tends to be confusing and have no clear conclusion†. In this play we never get at the truth and we never see or learn what really happened, all we have is the story that illustrates a point; in this case doubt. Father Flynn’s message of doubt and of the story were revealed in the first act in his sermon: â€Å"Doubt can be a bond as powerful and sustaining as certainty. When you are lost, you are not alone†. Sister James is the only character in the play that experiences profound doubt which may have lead her away from God or it may have created the strong bond and connection Father Flynn spoke of. Either way I am still left in quite a bit of doubt.

IVU Preparation and IVU Procedure

IVU Preparation and IVU Procedure What is Intravenous Urography? Intravenous Urography examines is the urinary system by using a special dye (contrast medium) that is injected into one of your veins. The dye travels through the bloodstream and is removed by the kidneys and passed into the ureters and bladder. The dye helps to show up these organs more clearly on X-rays. The test can help find out the cause of urinary problems. It can show kidney and bladder stones, tumours, blood clots or narrowing in the ureters. It is routinely done as an out-patient procedure in the radiology department. The procedure is comprised of two phases. First, it needs a functioning kidney to clean the dye out of the blood into the urine. The time necessary for the dye to come into view on x rays correlate exactly with kidneys function. The second phase gives entire anatomical images of the urinary tract. Within the first few minutes the dye lights up the kidneys, a stage called the nephrogram. Later the pictures follow the dye down the ureters and into the bladder. The final film taken after urinating shows how well the bladder empties. The contrast is removed from the bloodstream through the kidneys. Then contrast media becomes visible on x-rays almost immediately after injection. Attention is paid at the: Kidney Bladder  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚   Tubes that connect them (urethras) Why Intravenous Urography is done? The most common reason an IVU is done is in a condition be the suspected presence of stones in the urinary tract. Other pathology are such as renal failure, myeloma and infancy. The doctor would like to know how the urine is draining from the kidney to the bladder and how the stones have affected your urinary system. This may be used to balance the ultrasound of the kidney to the bladder and how the stones have affected the urinary system and the other wise. IVU uses a dye, also called as a contrast medium. This shows up the soft tissues the urinary system on the x-ray. This will allow the cancer to be seen in any parts of the patients urinary system. The cancer shows up as a blockage or an uneven outline on the wall of the bladder or ureter for an example. It is also used in the investigation of other suspected causes of urine obstruction or blood in the urine. Patient preparation for Intravenous Urography. Patient should be held NPO for 24 hours prior to the radiographic study. Patient should receive a minimum of 2 cleansing enemas prior to study. One enema should be performed the night before the procedure. Patient should receive large-bore catheter prior to examination start time. Patients over 60 lbs should receive 2 large-bore catheters to facilitate contrast administration. Medication Instruction Fasting Instruction Bowel Preparation A) Unless the patient have an asthma or other allergies the medications are not reqiured. Therefore, the suggestion for the examination is reviewed since the patient can develop a reaction towards the contrast media that are used. If the doctor feels the benefits of this procedure will equalize the risks, then the patient may be arranged to prednisolone (a type of steroid medication) tablets for the examination. This would be 40 mg 12 hours and then, 40mg 2 hours prior to the procedure. Sometimes in an urgent examination, the patient may be given an injection of Hydrocortisone 100 mg (another type of steroid) just before the the examination. B) If the IVU procedure is in the afternoon, patient can take light breakfast. Until 4-6 hours before the procedure, the patient can take a small cup of clear fluids per hour such as water, fruit juice, black tea or black coffee. No milk must be taken because it causes indigestion. It is preferable that nothing should be taken for at least 4 hours prior to the procedure. Water is allowed in diabetics, myeloma patients, renal failure and for other conditions where dehydration is contraindicated. C) Low residue vegetable-free diet for 1 day before the examination. A lot of water should be taken during this period before fasting begins. The patient may be given laxatives such as 2 tablets of Dulcolax at 9 pm the night before the examination to increase the peristalsis action. Procedure for Intravenous Urogram. Patient will be asked to lie on an x-ray table where the radiographer will take a preliminary film of their abdomen. The doctor will then give patient an injection of contrast medium into their arm. After this, a series of films will be taken over the next 30 minutes as the dye passes through your renal tract. At one stage of the procedure, a tight band may be placed on patients lower abdomen to help the radiographer to obtain maximum filling of the kidneys before the contrast medium flows down into the bladder. At the end of the examination, patient will be asked to empty your bladder, and then another film will be taken to see the empty bladder. Sometimes the contrast medium takes some time to go through the kidneys and these results in an extended examination time. Contrast medium is a fluid that is opaque to x-rays, is concentrated in the kidneys and goes into the bladder before being passed out in your urine. It is colorless, so the patient cannot see it when you go to the toile t. Aside from the minor sting from the injection as the contrast medium is injected, some people report feeling a warm flush, and sometimes have a metallic taste in their mouth. These things usually disappear within a minute or two, and are no cause for alarm. Incase the patient become itchy or short of breath, let the radiologist know straight away, as they may have a slight reaction to the contrast, which can be eased with antihistamines. If the patient have asthma or severe allergies, the radiologist may suggest them to take a steroid, or use other imaging options. Patient care after Procedure Sometimes, there would be minor (generalised warmth, to rashes) to moderate, asthma and difficulty breathing, a drop in the blood pressure (usually transient) or rarely severe and life threatening (anaphylaxis). Infrequently, there may be severe discomfort/pain when compression is applied, but usually the compression will be released the moment the patient inform the radiographer in charge of your examination. The only severe complication of an IVP is an allergy to the iodine-containing dye that is used. Such an allergy is rare, but it can be fatal. Patient are given and asked to lay on top of draw sheets cause the radiographic may be cold. Pillows are given for comfort. There is usually no special instructions post IVU. The patient may eat and drink unless your referring doctor has another examination or procedure for you after the IVU examination About the Intravenous Urography Examination The procedure takes about 40 to 60 minutes. Patient need to empty their bladder before the test. In a private cubicle, Patient may be asked to remove their clothing and put on a hospital gown. Then patient will be taken to the X-ray room and asked to lie down on the X-ray table. Radiographer will take the first X-ray pictures without the dye. Radiographer will then inject the dye in a vein in their hand or arm, and take more X-rays of your abdomen and pelvis. Patient may be asked to move position and lie on your stomach, or hold their breath for a few seconds while the X-rays are taken. To help improve images of the kidneys, a tight band may be placed across their abdomen. Patient may also be asked to go the toilet to empty your bladder and have another X-ray taken. Results on Intravenous Urography A normal intravenous urogram indicates no visible abnormality in the structure or function of the urinary system. The radiologist looks for a smooth non-lobulated outline of each kidney, no clubbing or other abnormality of the renal calyces (collecting system), and no abnormal fluid collection in the kidneys that could suggest obstruction. The ureters must contain no filling defects (stones) or deviations due to an adjacent tumor. The bladder must have a smooth outline and empty normally as visualized on the post-void film. Abnormal results include hydronephrosis (distension of the renal pelvis and calices due to obstruction) as a result of tumors or calculi (stones). Cysts or abscesses may also be present in the urinary system. A delay in renal function can also indicate renal disease. An abnormal amount of urine in the bladder after voiding may indicate prostate or bladder problems. Intravenous urograms are often done on children to rule out a rapid developing tumor in the kidneys, called a Wilms tumor. Children are also prone to infections of the bladder and kidneys due to urinary reflux (return back-flow of urine). Film For a preliminary film, (35 x 43cm) supine full A.P. abdomen to include lower border of symphysis pubis and diaphragm, abdominal preparation,and for any calcifications overlying the renal tract areas. Additional films to decide position of any opacities.35 ° posterior oblique of the renal regions. Tomogram of the renal areas are at 8-11 cm 4 reasom why we do preminilary Patient preparation The position of kidney (collimation) Exposure factor Instruction For an immediate film (24 x 30cm), AP of the renal areas, the film is exposed 10-14 s after the injection (arm-to-kidney time). It is to show the nephrogram. For a 5 minute film (24 x 30cm) AP of the renal areas, this film is taken to decide if the excretion is equal or if the uptake is poor and is important for assessing the need to adjust the technique. A compression band is now applied around the patients abdomen and the balloon positioned midway between the iliac spines. This can produce better pelvicalyceal distension. Compression should not be used in cases of suspected renal colic, renal trauma or after recent abdominal surgery. In 15 minute AP of the renal areas, there is usually sufficient distension of the pelvicalyceal system with opaque urine by the time. In the release of film the supine AP abdomen, this film is taken to show the whole urinary tract. If the film is good enough, the patient is asked to empty their bladder. The main value of this film is to access bladder emptying to demonstrate a return to normal of the dilated upper tracts with the relief of bladder pressure. In 25 Minute film (24 x 30cm) 15 ° caudal angulations centred 5 cm above the upper border of the symphysis pubis to reveal the swollen bladder. After micturition film, this will be the coned view of the bladder with the tube angled 15 caudad and centred 5cm above the symphysis pubis or the full length abdominal film to show the bladder emptying success and the return of the previously swollen lower ends of urethras to normal. Contrast agents and drugs Common examples for a 70 kg adult with normal blood urea values (2.5 7.5mmol/L.)Contrast media must be warmed to body temperature before injection. High osmolarity of contrast medium (HOCM) or low osmolarity of contrast medium (LOCM) 370 are acceptable but infants and small children, those with renal and cardiac failure, poorly hydrated patients, patients with diabetes, myelomatosis or sickle-cell anaemia and patient who have had a previous severe contrast medium reaction with low osmolarity contrast medium reaction with a strong allergic history have to receive low osmolarity contrast medium. Paediatric dose is 1ml kg/1 Equipment used for Intravenous Urogram Conray 400 ® 1 mL / lb ( 3 mL / kg) In high risk cats or compromised dogs (abnormal BUN / Creatinine), consult with the radiologist about the use of Omnipaque (Iohexol) instead of the Conray. Indwelling catheter preplaced in patient by clinician, student or treatment room techs. Depending on size of the animal or amount of contrast to be injected, 2 catheters might be required. Crash kit should be made available in the case of allergic contrast reaction (ie: vomiting and / or nausea are the most common.) What are the risks on doing Intravenous Urogram? Intravenous urograms are commonly performed and generally safe. However, in order to make an informed decision and give your consent, you need to be aware of the possible side-effects and the risk of complications of this procedure .Patient will be exposed to some X-ray radiation. Level of exposure is about the same as the background radiation that you would receive naturally from the environment over 12 to 14 months. Pregnant women are advised not to have X-rays, as there is a risk the radiation may affect the development of your unborn child. If the patient is, or think you may be pregnant, they must tell their doctor before the appointment. These are the unwanted but mostly temporary effects of a successful procedure. Very rarely, they may sense a warm feeling or get a metallic taste in their mouth after having the contrast. This should last only a minute or two.

personal essay- The Girl In Pink :: essays research papers

It's seven o'clock and Megan's alarm has just gone off. Up out of bed and into the closet she goes to find her wardrobe for the morning. The closet door opens to sunlight shining through the open blinds inside the large walk-in closet. To the left and right are haning masses of pink clothes, dresses, jeans, and, in one corner, a couple of employee tee shirts for the movie theare and some black work pants. Se carefully selects her favorite pink halter top, a lighter pink jacket, and a denim skirt. "Time to meet my public," she says to herself. She treks down the stairs, passing me. I just woke up. "Why are you up so early sister?" "Class," I reply. "Oh." Time for breakfast. "Mom, will you make me some eggs? Sunny side up?," Megan asks with a toss of her hair. "Sure hon." The family computer is turned on and Megan thinks to herself, "Which cute boys have emailed me today?" "Seth wrote to me, mom!" Mom smiles, "are you going to write back?" "Are you crazy! If I write back this soon, Ill look desterate and needy. I'll do it this weekend." She starts responding to some of her girlfriends' emails, a quick one or two lines each, and then moves on. A plate of eggs and toast and a glass of orange juice is set at her seat at the dining room table. Without closing anything on the computer, she prances over to pick at her breakfast. Half way through, she stops eating and goes toweigh herself. I pass her again in the hallway. "Are you going in the bathroom?" E ask. "Yes." Great. Well, I guess I'm done inthere now. She doesn't run any water or anything. It just seems to have slipped her mind that she has a huge murror in her room, too. Half an hour later, Megan emerges from the bathrom with perfect hair and flawless make up to compliment her outfit.

African American and Their Rights Essay

Since slavery, African Americans have gone through a lot to reach their current state. In the early 20th century, African Americans faced discrimination, isolation, and were segregated according to their skin color. It started when Europeans brought the first Africans to America, and continued throughout the Civil War. The American government made some changes in policies. A variety of leaders shaped the successful struggle toward black equality in America (Bowles, 2011). Ever since slavery begun, African Americans have been determined to end segregation, discrimination, and isolation. Activists such as, Martin Luther King Jr. and Malcolm X, and others, joined together to put an end to segregation, discrimination, and isolation to attain civil rights and equality. Slavery had changed dramatically in the late 1600s. About this time the slave trade to American colonies also began increasing to meet the demand for cheap labor. Traders sold slaves to the Northern colonies, but English and other European immigrants satisfied the demand for labor there (Echerd, 2009). Slaves in America came from western and central Africa. African tribes sometimes enslaved those defeated in intertribal wars and sold their captives to European slave traders. The tribes raided villages to obtain slaves to trade for European goods. Slave traders had even offered the Africans guns and other goods for the slaves. Slaves lived a rough, hard life. Cheap labor was a huge part of their lives. They had to work from sunrise to sunset. The work consisted of clearing land, tended to fields of tobacco, rice, and vegetables. They also performed many other tasks that had helped make plantations almost completely self-sufficient. No slaves saw any money for their tasks that they had performed, but they did receive food, clothing, and shelter. The slaves had resided in small one-room huts, which had no windows and the floors were all dirt. Most slaves accepted their living condition, however, they knew no other way of life (Koehler, 2009). However, white Southerners regained control of state governments in the South during the late 1870s, however, and reversed most of the previous gains made by former slaves. For example: segregation. What is segregation? According to Webster’s Dictionary, to segregate is defined as to separate or set apart from others; isolate or to require, often with force, the separation of a specific racial, religious, or other group from the body of society. Segregation has been a part of our American heritage, almost from the moment slaves arrived on the shores of the New World (Bowles, 2011). In 17th century Virginia, the theocratic government feared that racial mixing between freed and enslaved blacks and white indentured servants would become a means to usurp government power. They passed laws in which the color line was clearly defined in any criminal punishments. By treating whites and blacks separately and unequally, these Virginian leaders set up a system of white supremacy that would become an essential component of American slavery. Separation and segregation was the order of the day, with African Americans being forced to ride in separate railroad cars, have their own hotels and courthouses, and even get water out of their own drinking fountains. Their children could not attend the same schools with the White children. To further push the color-line, they then added in segregation with the Jim Crow Laws. This is mainly because the Whites were considered to be superior, and hence were thought to deserve better schools with better facilities. African Americans on the other hand were considered inferior, and hence their children attended low-quality schools that lacked adequate facilities (Sitkoff & Franklin, 2008). The Northern States, which had grew and prospered during the war, believed the former slaves to be equal as any other person. The Southern States, still angry over the loss of the war and their firm belief in White superiority, took a different approach. They created and enforced what were known as the Black Codes. These were legislations passed in Southern states to control labor, migration and other activities of the freed slaves. Black Codes allowed legal marriage, property ownership and limited access to the court systems. It prohibited them from testifying against whites, serving on juries or militias, voting and publicly expressing any form of legal concerns ( www. history. com). Any former slave that did not sign yearly labor contract with the plantation owners could be arrested and hired out. The Black codes in short allowed for the continued and legal discrimination against the former slaves (www. history. com). Congress quickly responded to these laws in 1866 and seized the initiative in remaking the south. Republicans wanted to ensure that with the remaking the south, freed blacks were made viable members of society. But the strong southern legislatures finally gave in; in 1868 they repealed most of the laws that discriminated against blacks. Things were starting to look up. But by 1877 Democratic parties regained their power of the south and ended reconstruction. In 1882, southern states passed Jim Crow laws that enforced strict segregation between blacks and whites and limited African-American civil rights. This was devastating to the blacks. After all the strides they made were reversed. From holding political offices, the right to vote, and participating as equal members of society was changed. The south gradually reinstated the racially discriminatory laws. The two main goals they wanted these laws to achieve: disenfranchisement and segregation. To take away the power that the blacks had gained, the Democratic Party began to stop Blacks from voting. There were many ways to stop blacks from voting. Some of these things were poll tax, which were fees were charged at voting booths and were expensive for most blacks, and the literacy test. Since teaching blacks were illegal, most adult blacks were former slaves and illiterate. And the other goal, segregation, causes the democrats to create laws that segregated the schools and public facilities. The Northern States, which had grew and prospered during the war, believed the former slaves to be equal as any other person. The Southern States, still angry over the loss of the war and their firm belief in White superiority, took a different approach. They created and enforced what were known as the Black Codes. These were legislations passed in Southern states to control labor, migration and other activities of the freed slaves. Black Codes allowed legal marriage, property ownership and limited access to the court systems. It prohibited them from testifying against whites, serving on juries or militias, voting and publicly expressing any form of legal concerns. Any former slave that did not sign yearly labor contract with the plantation owners could be arrested and hired out. The Black codes in short allowed for the continued and legal discrimination against the former slaves. Just like some African Americans activists fought this segregation, some Whites had some groups of their own to carry the segregation on and on. The Ku Klux Klan was one of them. The Ku Klux Klan, Knights of White Camellia, and other terrorists murdered thousands of blacks and some whites to prevent them from voting and participating in public life. The KKK was founded in 1865 to 1866. They directed their violence towards black landowners, politicians, and community leaders. They also did this to people who supported Republicans or racial equalities (Anti-Defamation League, 2012). After the abolishment of slavery in the U. S. the KKK formed. They hated blacks and would commit crimes against them. Murders, hangings, and lynches are just some of the crimes against the blacks (www. kkk. bz, n. d. ). The Ku Klux Klan claims to be just defending their people like other races do. What is a lynching? Lynching is a form of punishment with no legal permission. Most times lynching occurred against African Americans by hanging them. This was very popular during the Gilded Age after the American Civil War when African Americans were freed from slavery. Many White men would use lynching against Black men for being in a mixed relationship with a White woman. However, because lynching had no legal basis, it was thought to have been a tool that was used against freed slaves that had achieved financial stability and authority in order to remain a White-dominated nation. Lynching was most likely performed by White Supremacy groups like the KKK. Lynching was done by hanging or shooting, or both. However, many were of a more hideous nature. Burning at the stake, maiming, dismemberment, castration, and other brutal methods of physical torture are all part of a lynching. Lynching therefore was a cruel combination of racism and sadism, which was utilized primarily to sustain the caste system in the South. Many white people believed that Negroes could only be controlled by fear. To them, lynching was seen as the most effective means of control. Defending your people is one thing, but to torture another human being is inhuman. The KKK has several stories out there today on how they treated the blacks, whether they did anything wrong or not. For instance, a Louisiana woman is in critical condition after she was set on fire, resulting in burns on roughly 60 percent of her body, and her car appears to have had racial slurs written on it at the time of her attack (Mach, n. d. ). They had even gone as far as church bombings. The KKK launched a bomb into a church during a Sunday service, which left four innocent teenage girls dead. The men responsible hid behind the cloak of secrecy, intimidation and the white robes of the oldest terrorist organization in the world, the Ku Klux Klan (Gado, n. d. ). Therefore, until the Civil Rights Act of 1964, racial discrimination is an issue that was not seriously tackled. The act was a successful result of most wide-ranging civil rights legislation and Civil Rights Movements for close to a century (Finkelman, 2009). The act declared discrimination on the basis of color, race, ethnicity, religion, and many other aspects as unconstitutional. During the critical years from 1954 to 1963, a variety of leaders with different backgrounds, such as lawyers from the NAACP, women sitting on buses, ministers from southern black churches, militants from black power organizations, and youth from colleges had shaped the successful struggle toward black equality in America (Bowles, 2011). In 1896, the Supreme Court’s Plessy v. Ferguson decision established that â€Å"separate but equal† facilities for whites and blacks were allowable under the U. S. Constitution. Local governmental officials could designate separate public facilities like drinking fountains, restrooms, and schools. Even courthouses often had separate Bibles according to the defendant’s race. The problem was that separate usually meant unequal, and segregation subverted the freedom of every African American (Sundquist, 1993). Now, it is time for the African- Americans to fight back. The incident that made them want to make a difference was the Rosa Park bus ride. After a long day of work on December 1, 1955, Parks, feet hurt, looked forward to sitting on the bus for her ride home. At the time, there was a city ordinance stating that African Americans had to give up their seats on a train or bus if a white man asked for them. When a white man approached Parks and told her that he wanted her seat, she simply said no. Although she acted as a private citizen, her response was as an informed, committed member of the NAACP movement. The bus driver had asked Parks to move. When she did not, the bus driver said, â€Å"Look, woman, I told you I wanted the seat. Are you going to stand up? † When Parks again said no, the driver threatened, â€Å"If you don’t stand up, I’m going to have you arrested. † She gave no reply but at the next stop, Rosa was arrested (Garrow, 2004). A pastor known as Martin Luther King Jr., organized a boycott, the Montgomery bus boycott. King Jr. took this to a higher level and maintained and organized the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC), which coordinated similar bus boycotts in other cities. Shortly after the boycott, King had found a bomb on his porch. King went to Birmingham, Alabama, where he continued his nonviolent protests and marches. However, the police authorized force to disband King’s followers by using electric cattle prods, tear gas, and fire hoses (Bowles, 2011). King was arrested with the others, but upon his release from jail he went to Washington, D. C., where he and demonstrators met at the National Mall and addressed them with his famous â€Å"We Shall Overcome† speech on August 23, 1963. King’s words at the capital that day were a defining moment of the Civil Rights movement. Other demonstrations and civil disobedience campaigns sought to increase African-American voter registration and win better jobs. Malcolm X actively promoted the Black Muslim cause. Even after speaking about non-violence and wanting peace, Martin Luther King Jr. was assassinated. The civil rights movement dramatically increased participation of African- American voters in both the South and the North today. By the mid-70s some 4000 African-Americans have been elected to political office at all levels of government. Qualified African-Americans now have a wider range of opportunities than ever before. Whether you are White or African-American, each group has faced its own peculiar challenges on its approach to democracy (Rappaport, 2001). This racism is wrong and unconstitutional. The 13th Amendment is ratified, abolishing slavery, which some people still went against it. The 14th Amendment granted citizenship to the former slaves and forbade states from denying any person life, liberty, or property without due process of the law. The 14th Amendment also guaranteed equal protection of the law for all citizens. The 15th Amendment barred states from denying citizens the right to vote based on race, color, or previous servitude (Hertz, 2009). In a perfect world, everyone would be equal. The color of one’s skin, religious beliefs or sexual preference would mean nothing. We would accept everyone for whom and what they are. We would rejoice in the differences between each other instead of belittling, hating and discriminating against those differences. We don’t however live in a perfect world. We live in a world filled with distrust and hate. If we don’t know or understand it in our society, then it is wrong. It will be discriminated against in one form or another. We as a country have made major strides in overcoming racism, however we still have far to go. In conclusion, African Americans faced isolation, discrimination, and segregation during the post-construction period. Racial discrimination was also prevalent in the military where back soldiers were considered inferior to white soldiers and hence poorly trained and equipped. The issue of racial discrimination, isolation and segregation was not seriously tackled until the Civil Rights Act of 1964 was enacted. Civil rights activists such as Malcolm X and Martin Luther King Jr. organized the famous 1963 protest in Washington that eventually forced President John Kennedy to pass the Act. It is therefore, clear that the journey to end isolation, discrimination, and segregation to attain equality and civil rights has been hard but worthwhile. ? References Bowles, M. (2011). American History 1865- Present End of Isolation. San Diego, CA: Bridgepoint. Retrieved at: https://content. ashford. edu/books/AUHIS204. 11. 2 Finkelman, P. (2009) Encyclopedia of African American history, 1896-present, Madison Avenue, New York: Oxford University Press Rappaport, D. (2001). Martin’s Big Words: The Life of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. Sitkoff, H. , & Franklin, J. (2008) The Struggle for Black equality. Hill and Wang Publication http://www. adl. org/learn/ext_us/kkk/default. asp? LEARN_Cat=Extremism&LEARN_SubCat=Extremism_in_America&xpicked=4&item=kkk http://www. history. com/topics/black-codes Civil Rights Act of 1964 http://www. ourdocuments. gov/doc. php? doc=97&page=transcript.